Effect of imperialism on the Rwandan genocide Essay

There is a lot of history in a small country like Rwanda. The original inhabitants were the ethnic Twa. By the 10th century, Hutu farmers were established there. Tutsi warriors with cattle arrived after the 14th century. Tutsi formed a monarchy by the 16th century. All tribes shared a common language and culture, and there were no race issues until the 20th century. (4) Germany was the first European country to colonize Rwanda in 1899, administering it indirectly through the existing king. Belgium took control in 1916, during World War I. Belgium received it as a League of Nations mandate in 1919 and continued indirect rule but restructured the system to increase ethnic divisions. (4) The Belgians favored the Tutsi over the Hutu and Twa, which was a big mistake that caused huge problems in the future and lots of racism. (5) In 1946 Rwanda became a UN trust territory administered by Belgium. (5) Pressure rose during the 1950s as Hutu protested against Tutsi for rights and voting. Violence spread quickly after the Hutu sub-chief was attacked by the Tutsi. Many Tutsis died or fled to neighboring countries. Belgian troops intervened and set up a policy reversal, with a Hutu-led government. (4) With democratization going through Africa, monarchy was abolished in 1961 and Rwanda gained complete independence in 1962, as two countries, Rwanda and Burundi. (5) Tutsi exiles continued attacks on Hutu throughout the 60s. The First Republic, led by Hutu, ended with a 1973 rebellion coordinated by the Hutu Minister of Defense, Juvenal Habyarimana. Tutsi revels in Uganda formed the Rwandan Patriotic Front, or the RPF, and invaded Rwanda in 1990. The conflict ended in 1993 with a power-sharing agreement treaty. But the peace was broken again when Habyarimana’s plane was shot down in April 1994. (5) Know one knew whether it was Hutus that shot down the plane, but they were accused nonetheless. â€Å"Hutu politicians opposed to the late president Juvenal Habyarimana were targeted in the first few days after the plane crash, which has yet to be satisfactorily explained. But now the killings seem to be directed purely against Tutsis,† according to Hilsum. (1) This was the end  of the Second Republic and the beginning of a 100-day well-organized genocidal rampage. Hundreds of thousands fled to neighboring Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zaire (now the Congo). The RPF fought back and took control on July 4, 1994. Thousands fled from the RPF advance and many died from disease and unsanitary conditions. In 1996 Hutu refugees became targets of Tutsi violence, and Hutu soldiers attacked the Tutsi. Rwanda sent militia to defeat the Zairian troops helping the Hutus. Most refugees were sent back to Rwanda, but some remained to launch guerilla attacks in northwestern Rwanda. (4) Courts were set up for 124,000 people for crimes during the genocide. The first Hutu president was elected in 2000 when the old president resigned. Trials are still going on today, charging people with war crimes during the genocide. Because of the great scars of Rwanda’s history in the last century, Rwanda today has a very weak economy and is very undeveloped industrially. The products are mostly agricultural, and most of the population are subsistence farmers. The main crops consist of coffee and tea. Also grown are bananas, beans, cassava, cattle, pyrethrum, sorghum, and sweet potatoes. The only mining resources are tin and wolframite. A lack of fertile soil limits agricultural expansion. (4) Rwanda only trades with Uganda because of bad relations with other countries. This makes trade very expensive there because of this. (5) Christianity was introduced in Rwanda by missionaries in the early 20th century. Today 65% are Catholic, 9% Protestant, 1% Muslim, and 25% follow indigenous beliefs. Ethnic tribes are still mostly Hutu and Tutsi, which are now peaceful. 90% are Hutu, most of the rest are Tutsi, and only 1% are Twa. The official languages spoken in Rwanda are English, French, and Kinyarwanda, a Bantu language. (4,5) Independence Day is celebrated on July 1. The government consists of the President and Transitional National Assembly of 70 seats. Local elections establish councils responsible for local disputes, minor crime, tax collection, and salaries for teachers and doctors. The country is very crowded and there is lots of disease. (5) Most of the problems in Rwanda in the last century were caused by imperialism. The genocide in Rwanda affected its neighboring countries as well, and thousands of Hutus and Tutsis were also killed in Burundi by similar problems there. The incredible amount of racism and hate in the very heart of Africa was sparked by the colonial structure enforced by Germany and then Belgium. According to Dowden, the Tutsi, making up only about 10% of the population, â€Å"were a kind of feudal cattle-owning aristocracy who lorded it over the Hutu peasants.† Belgians gave the Tutsis a big advantage in education, leading them to have professional jobs. (2) Before the Europeans came there was peace in Africa. But after greedy 19th century European politicians occupied the African continent, enslaving or abusing its people, ethnic conflicts broke out all over Africa, followed by a century of bloodshed. The conflicts and the current problems in Africa could have been prevented if imperialism wouldn’t have existed. There would not have been a genocide during which hundreds of thousands of innocent people were slaughtered over a period of 100 days. According to LaFraniere, â€Å"The Rwanda genocide is considered the worst ethnic killing since the Holocaust. In 100 days, an estimated one in 10 Tutsi in Rwanda were wiped out, along with many moderates among the Hutu, who make up the majority of the population. The efficiency of the killers, who chased down the Tutsi at roadblocks and in the streets with sharpened sticks, nail-studded clubs and grenades, surpassed that of the Nazis, some historians contend.† (3) The financial crisis in Rwanda and the suffering of its people today could have been prevented if it wasn’t for so much hate and carelessness of imperialistic European nations in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Bibliography 1. Hilsum, Lindsey. â€Å"Men mad with killing drown nation in blood†. The Independent. 1 May 1994. 2. Dowden, Richard. â€Å"A wound at the heart of Africa†. The Independent. 11 May 1994. 3. LaFraniere, Sharon. â€Å"3 convicted of genocide in Rwanda Media chiefs guilty of inciting massacre of Tutsi in 1994†. International Herald Tribune. 4 Dec. 2003. 4. World Book Encyclopedia 2003. Vol. 16. 5. Culture Grams 2004.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Only Children Essay

Introduction Research from the Australian Bureau of Statistics in 2006 suggests the fastest growing nuclear family unit has become the single-child household (Emma Sykes, 2011). According to figures released by the Office for National Statistics, the UK has about 7.7million families with dependent children, of which 3.7 million have just one child, compared to three million with two and 1.1 million with three children or more (Simon Edge, 2013). Additionally, in the United States, the percentage of women who have one child has more than doubled in the past 20 years up from 10% to 13% (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2011). The issue of single-child households is a contemporary issue relevant to both children and parents in today’s modern society as the number of single-child households are rapidly growing throughout the 21st century. Scope There are increasing rates in single-child households. Single child households are rapidly growing in popularity making them a contemporary issue of the 21st century. There are many factors which influence parents to raise a single child. Additionally, there are many factors which effect the child due to them being raised without the influence of siblings. These aspects are going to be explored and focused on for the purposes of this investigation. The aim is to determine: â€Å"Are there more advantages or disadvantages when having an only child?† The following guide the discussion: Why do parents choose to have an only child? What are the advantages of having an only child? What are the disadvantages of having an only child? Methodology Both primary and secondary sources were used to gain information for the purposes of this investigation. Examples of secondary sources include the internet, books and other printed medias. The internet provided an assortment of sources. For example, reliable websites with statistics and informative information which related to the topic. Additionally, videos were sourced online. They were used to provide factual information and statistics relating to the topic. Due to the fact internet sites, books and printed media are secondary sources, it was noticed that they incorporated biased views as they were second hand opinions. In order to gain information  which would assist with writing a reliable investigation and conclusion, interviews and surveys were conducted. Interviewees included: E Barbaro – Mother of four and grandmother to an only child. V Haynes – A former kindergarten teacher and mother of an only child. J Stefano – An only child. The individuals interviewed all had the ability to provide strong opinions relating to the topic of only children as they were either an only child themselves, have raised an only child and/or gave opinions towards their thoughts on having siblings. Why do parents choose to have an only child? Each individual to their own has their own beliefs relating to whether or not is beneficial to raise an only child, and that includes parents. Each parent to their own also has their own beliefs towards why they wish to raise a small family. The number of families today with just one dependent child is now 47 per cent and expected to rise to more than 50 in a decade. As the ONS confirms: â€Å"It appears that families are getting smaller† (Simon Edge, 2013). Firstly, it is believed that most parents make the decision to have an only child because it makes them happier. Professor Hans-Peter Kohler of the University of Pennsylvania is one of the many to agree with this statement. He states that the only thing that a majority of parents take into consideration is their ‘wellbeing’. According to Kohler, a parents happiness peaks at one child, and â€Å"having more makes you poorer, more tired and less content† (2013). Further evidence regarding parents raising a singular child comes from Havard psychologist; Daniel Gilbert. Gilbert supports Kohler’s views regarding the parents of singular children, and agrees that they choose to have one child as part of their personal wellbeing. Gilbert claims that â€Å"mothers are at their happiest during those moments when they are not looking after their kids. They prefer shopping, watching TV, exercising and eating† (2013). Gilbert’s studies have concluded that mothers consider interacting with their child is on a par with mopping the floor (Paul Meril, 2013). Another to agree with these statements is author; Lauren Sandler who explores the topic of parents raising only children in her book: The One and Only: The Freedom of Having an Only Child and the Joy of Being One (2013). Sandler writes â€Å"they don’t like being parents (because they are selfish), or they care more about status – work, money, materialism – than their kid  (because they are selfish), or the parents waited too long (because they are selfish)†. Unlike psycologists, Sandler has her own perception of the issue as she is an only child herself, and the mother of an only child. She explains that she wanted to have an only child for the same reasons as her mother did and that is; â€Å"to have a happy kid, my mother figured she needed to be a happy mother, and to be a happy mother, she needed to be a happy person. To do that, she had to preserve her authentic self, which she could not imagine doing with a second child†. In order to test whether or not parents decide on raising a single child to benefit themselves, a survey was conducted by a group of mothers at a day care center who have chosen to raise an only child. Similar to what psychologists have suggested, 44% of the participants have agreed that they choose to have an only child as it beneficial to their personal wellbeing. Despite the overwhelming amount of parents that claim that having an only child is beneficial to them, there were some who had contradicting views by adding: â€Å"When we got married we always wanted to have a big family. This choice was taken out of our hands and we had to depend on IVF to conceive and carry our only 4 year old child† (2013). Social psychologist, Susan Newman states: â€Å"women are getting married later, which raises infertility issues. Many women continue their careers even after they have a child, which makes having more than one child more difficult. Add with the financial stress of raising a child, it’s no wonder some couples stop at one† (Kristy MacKaben, 2013). It costs a significant amount of money to raise a child; clothing, medical care, schooling and some parents may decide that they can’t afford to have lots of children (Emma Sykes, 2011). Parents feel that they can give that one child more in comparison to giving more childr en less. â€Å"It improves their quality of life† says Newman. What are the advantages of having an only child? After conducting a survey and asking a group of people who had siblings whether or not they would prefer being an only child, 83% of the participants replied with yes. When partipants were asked as to why they would prefer this, they claimed  that only children have more advantages. Some being mothers themselves claimed that that the biggest advantage of having one child is the money. With each child, these expenses are more. By not having to spend more money on additional children, your only child can have more costly items (Holly Doorman, 2010). The financial implications of being an only child are numerous. Parents only have one child’s education to pay for, to clothe, to feed, to enroll in lessons or to invest in their financial security. Multiple children require parents to work harder to achieve larger salaries to support their children (Joys of Parenting, 2013). Social psychologist, Susan Newman states: â€Å"if you have a middle income, you’re going to spend roughly $286,000 to get them from birth to 18. That’s kind of staggering†. Another major advantage of being an only child is the educational advantages. Only children are both the first born and the last born child. These children must assume both roles. These children tend to be more academically oriented, ambitious, conscientious, conforming, conservative and respectful of their parents (Holly Doorman, 2013). It turns out there is a significant difference when it comes to intelligence in only children and children from larger families. A landmark 20-year study showed that increased one-on-one parenting produces higher education levels, higher test scores and higher levels of achievement (Kristy Kackaben, 2013). Parents will have the money to spend on tutoring, tools, and the best schools. Parents also have the time to help with homework because you are not running after other children. With one child to give your attention to, it is much easier to find out if they are having problems in school (Holly Doorman, 2013). Newman agrees by stating: â€Å"they have all their parents financial resources to get them extra lessons, to get them SAT training but more critical is the one-on-one time at the dinner table.† This results in more reading time, more homework time and eventually better test scores. One mother stated that: â€Å"I think we felt as a family that we were able to give our son more attention and spend more time together and really focus on him† (2013). By having only one child, the child’s and parent’s privacy becomes easier. One of the main advantages of being the only child †that your parents pay attention only to you. You are the most important person in their lives. Parents do everything for you† (J Stefano, 2013). For example, if the child wishes for a new toy or some clothes, parents will simply buy  it to fufill the child’s wants. For mother of only child, V Haynes, she states that: †I generally purchase toys for my child in o rder to fufill their wants as they are lonely and do not have a sibling to bond with† (2013). Moreover, only children have everything to themselves. They will not have to share a room, the computer and any other things. What are the disadvantages of having an only child? In a 2013 study, data from from before and after the institution of China’s one-child policy has shown a causal link between being an only child and acquiring certain negative character traits. The study found that ‘onlies’ are â€Å"significantly less trusting, less trustworthy, more risk-averse, less competitive, more pessimistic, and less conscientious individuals† (Sandler, 2013). â€Å"The hardest part of being an only child is the stereotyping others create. Stereotypes make people assume that you are somebody that you are not† (J Stefano, 2013). The biggest disadvantage for only children is that they are generally percieved as ‘spoiled’ and/or ‘selfish’. Although disputed by scholars past and present (Polit & Falbo, 1987; 1988, Newman, 2011), the popular belief is that only children are self-centered, spoiled, in constant need of the spotlight, and socially inept (Stephen J Betchen, 2011). The most common statement made by survey participants when asked for their thoughts on only children was that: â€Å"they are used to thinking that they are the most important people so they must have everything only for themselves† (2013). These stereotypes have all been derived from the work of a 19th century psychologist who famously concluded that, â€Å"being an only child is a disease in itself† (Lauren Smelcher Sams, 2013). The old stereotype of spoilt and selfish does no one justice (Carmel Egan, 2009). Due to stereotyping, when someone becomes knowledgable that someone they meet is an only child, it is most likely that they will behave differently towards them. They are often perceived as loners and their actions may be misinterpreted.This makes it more difficult for only children to establish friendships. Single children do not learn social skills with other children in the household. Therefore, all of their social interactions must be gained in the world with other children (Joys of Parenting, 2013). When an only child is compared to a child that belongs to a large family, it is said that children from larger families are better off later in life since their  parents take care of their needs but not their wants. Children from larger families learn the difference between wants and needs. They learn to wait for what they want, or to work and earn it themselves. Thus they are spared the corruptive influence of instant gratification. They internalize the virtues of patience and honorable ambition. They grow to become self-reliant self-starters (Lots of Kids, 2010). According to Professor Ralph, whilst children from larger families learn these things, only children rely and become more dependent on the parent (Emma Sykes, 2011) A major topic regarding only children is loneliness. Many parents of only children deny their child freedom to explore the world in case something ‘bad’ were to happen to them (E Barbaro, 2013). There are â€Å"other children can go out when they please. For example , shopping with friends or going to a party. But being the only child means that parents put pressure on you. You have to still prove that you are the best. Instead you must focus on studies and have to maintain getting an a A for every test otherwise your parents will be disappointed with you† (J Stefano, 2013). Lastly, having an only child can be of a disadvantage to the family in later years. Bryan Caplan, author of Selfish Reasons To Have More Kids argues that it’s better to have more kids. He says â€Å"have the number of children that maximises average utility over your whole lifespan. When you’re 30, you might feel like two children is plenty, but once you’re 60, you are more likely to prefer 10 sons and daughters to keep you company and keep the grandkids coming† (2011). Conclusion The rate of single child families is rapidly increasing in today’s current society. As the world is constantly evolving, so is the way parents choose have a family. The 21st century is different from the past as mothers are not required to ultimately spend all of their time being a housewife looking after children and completing household chores. Women now have careers and are more concerned about status work and materilism. With this factor in mind, it is no surprise that single child households are becoming a contemporary issue of the 21st century. Only children are becoming more accepted by society as it is becoming more common. It is now less likely for only children to be placed into stereotypical categories, and being percieved as ‘selfish’ and ‘spoiled’. Despite this, only children are still  identified for having these traits. A reason for this is that majority of parents raising single children do spend their money on them, as they have no other priorities. Other disadvantages are loneliness and the lack of freedom, leading to possible issues when interacting with other children. Altough there are quite a few negatives, they still do not outweigh the positive aspects of being an only child. Only children do get great advantages. For example, parents can spend all of their time on the child. That child is the number one priority. They can have a close relationship with parents and they do not have to share with others. Despite this, it can lead to negative aspects where the child learns the ‘selfish’ traits and falls under stereotyping. The question: â€Å"Are there more advantages or disadvantages when having an only child?† cannot be fully supported. Who is to say whether or not there is a great advantage when having an only child, or whether it is a disadvantage. There is not enough information to fully support whether it is a good or bad thing. Every individual is different and the overall, the decision to raise an only child is ultimately up to the parents and whether their lifestyle fits one of a large or a small family. Less or more children for whatever personal reasons should just be accepted, as long as the children involved are happy. There is not one right or wrong answer. Bibliography Primary Surveys with mothers and employees of a daycare center, 2013, ‘Are there more advantages or disadvantages when having an only child?’, August 22 E Barbaro, Interview, 2013 V Haynes, Interview, 2013 J Stefano, Interview, 2013 Secondary Bellybelly.com.au. 1986. One Child Families: Advantages and Disadvantages of Having an Only Child. [online] Available at: http://www.bellybelly.com.au/child/one-child-families-advantages-disadvantages-of-having-one-child [Accessed: 27th Aug 2013]. Caplan, B. 2011. Selfish Reasons To Have More Kids. The Perseus Books Group, p. Paperback, 288 pages. Emma Sykes. Abc.net.au. 2011. Triple P Podcast: Single Children – ABC

Forms of economic dangers that threatened members of the lower classes Essay

Forms of economic dangers that threatened members of the lower classes of Europe in 19th century - Essay Example This paper investigates the many forms of economic dangers that threatened members of the lower classes of Europe during the first half of the nineteenth century and the measures they took to avoid or deal with these dangers. There were various economic dangers that various people from the lower classes of Europe faced during the first half of the nineteenth century. During this period most young people moved from rural areas to cities looking for work which resulted to high population growth in the cities. Although the economic life of the lower class in Europe had always been inferior, it greatly deteriorated during the early part of the nineteenth century. The key economic threats they faced included, starvation, unemployment, poor living conditions, lack of good sanitation and water, overcrowding, deskilling, low wages as noted by Etienne Bede in his first job (Traugott 52), poor working conditions, lack job protection, and social and political tensions (Zeydel). The rapid rise i n population due to the impact of the industrial revolution as well as the movement of people from rural areas to urban areas, resulted to food shortages in the early nineteenth century with most of the lower class people facing starvation and not able to afford food. Furthermore, Poor food (cereal) harvests and the potato blight that attacked potato crops in Ireland resulted to wide spread food shortages and food riots, and a sharp in food prices way beyond the means of the lower class (Vanhaute, Paping, and O’Grada 2-5). Norbert Truquin in his biography recounts of near starvation spells as he barely earned enough and the food prices were high (Traugott 263-265). In early nineteenth century, life was penurious for the lower class. There was no protection of jobs and a person could easily lose their jobs. While factories attempted to provide steady work to their employees, where there wasn’t much to be done, the factories would close up. Or in Truquin’s case, h e found it hard to find work since factories had closed. And when he did find work, it only lasted for twelve days, earning barely enough to support him (Traugott 281-283). Furthermore, the political and social tensions were prevalent, and greatly presented a threat to the workers sustaining their daily jobs. Etienne Bede recounts of his fear in working as well his hesitation to open shop at his home town due to fear of being arrested for abandoning the army (Traugott 56, 58). Furthermore, worker class actions in protest of poor working conditions and low wages for most made things even worse for low class working persons. This can be noted in Truiquin’s case where ran out of money within four days after taking part in a demonstration against the government for unemployment and bad working conditions (Traugott 280-282). Furthermore, Suzanne Voilquin reiterates that most periods after restoration as exceeding depressing and distressing for worker (Traugott 101). For the workme n of organized trade such as Perdiguier, jobs tended to be seasonal and hence they had to travel looking for work

Immunology in Biotechnology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Immunology in Biotechnology - Essay Example have distinguished different kind of inflammation like: Granulomatous inflammation, Fibrinous inflammation, purulent inflammation, serous inflammation etc. and each of these are associated with particular kind of diseases or infection. These observations of type of inflammation related to particular disease or infection facilitated development of new diagnostic procedure for identification of disease and similarly by understanding mechanistic aspect of inflammation in particular disease opens new vista of new treatment. strategies. 2. Explain the structure of a virus. How does it differ from bacteria? Are antibiotics effective against viral infections? Why or why not? Answer the question posed on the cover of the December, 2004 issue of Scientific American â€Å"Are Viruses Alive?† Explain why this is an important question. Virus contains nucleic acid, surrounded by a protective layer of protein, which is called capsid. It also possesses a lipid layer that is derived from the membrane e of the host. They differ from bacteria in the presence of cell wall. Most bacteria have a rigid cell wall, followed by cell membrane and a cytosol. A bacterium possesses all the information needed for reproduction viz., the DNA. Whereas, in the case of the virus it may or may not have an outermost layer called envelope and it also posses a core genetic material which can be either DNA or RNA. Anti bacterial antibiotics are not effective against Viruses as the target molecules for anti bacterial antibiotics are different or absent in viruses, like cell wall (Penicillin ), Ribosome (tetracycline), Transcription (Rifampicin) etc. But there are several anti viral antibiotics are available in market which effectively kills the viruses. The viruses are consider to be a in between of living and non living world as it multiplie s but with the help of host. But now it is clearly demonstrated that viruses are living organism and its become model system to understand what is the minimum